Advantages of RTL, DTL and TTL Logic circuit

Advantages of RTL, DTL and TTL Logic circuit Introduction of Logic Gates A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. The logic normally performed is Boolean logic and is most commonly found in digital circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays, fluidics, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. In electronic logic, a logic level is represented by a voltage or current, (which depends on the type of electronic logic in use). Each logic gate requires power so that it can source and sink currents to achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit diagrams the power is not shown, but in a full electronic schematic, power connections are required. Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL): Resistor-transistor logic gates use Transistors to combine multiple input signals, which also amplify and invert the resulting combined signal. Often an additional transistor is included to re-invert the output signal. This combination provides clean output signals and either inversion or non-inversion as needed. RTL gates are almost as simple as DL gates, and remain inexpensive. They also are handy because both normal and inverted signals are often available. However, they do draw a significant amount of current from the power supply for each gate. Another limitation is that RTL gates cannot switch at the high speeds used by todays computers, although they are still useful in slower applications. Although they are not designed for linear operation, RTL integrated circuits are sometimes used as inexpensive small-signal amplifiers, or as interface devices between linear and digital circuits. RTL Logic Circuit: Resistor-transistor logic (RTL) is a class of digital circuits built using resistors as the input network and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) as switching devices. RTL is the earliest class of transistorized digital logic circuit used; other classes include diode-transistor logic (DTL) and transistor-transistor logic (TTL). Advantages of RTL Logic circuit: The primary advantage of RTL technology was that it involved a minimum number of transistors, which was an important consideration before integrated circuit technology (that is, in circuits using discrete components), as transistors were the most expensive component to produce. Early IC logic production (such as Fairchilds in 1961) used the same approach briefly, but quickly transitioned to higher-performance circuits such as diode-transistor logic and then transistor-transistor logic (starting 1963 at Sylvania), since diodes and transistors were no more expensive than resistors in the IC. Limitations: The obvious disadvantage of RTL is its high current dissipation when the transistor conducts to overdrive the output biasing resistor. This requires that more current be supplied to and heat be removed from RTL circuits. In contrast, TTL circuits minimize both of these requirements. Lancaster says that integrated circuit RTL NOR gates (which have one transistor per input) may be constructed with any reasonable number of logic inputs, and gives an example of an 8-input NOR gate. A standard integrated circuit RTL NOR gate can drive up to 3 other similar gates. Alternatively, it has enough output to drive up to 2 standard integrated circuit RTL buffers, each of which can drive up to 25 other standard RTL NOR gates. Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL): By letting diodes perform the logical AND or OR function and then amplifying the result with a transistor, we can avoid some of the limitations of RTL. DTL takes diode logic gates and adds a transistor to the output, in order to provide logic inversion and to restore the signal to full logic levels. Diode-transistor logic Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL) is a class of digital circuits built from bipolar junction transistors (BJT), diodes and resistors; it is the direct ancestor of transistor-transistor logic. It is called diode-transistor logic because the logic gating function (e.g., AND) is performed by a diode network and the amplifying function is performed by a transistor (contrast this with RTL and TTL). Operation: With the simplified circuit shown in the picture the negative bias voltage at the base is required to prevent unstable or invalid operation. In an integrated circuit version of the gate, two diodes replace R3 to prevent any base current when one or more inputs are at low logic level. Alternatively to increase fan-out of the gate an additional transistor and diode may be used. The IBM 1401 used DTL circuits almost identical to this simplified circuit, but solved the base bias level problem mentioned above by alternating NPN and PNP based gates operating on different power supply voltages instead of adding extra diodes. Advantages of DTL: One advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is that signals represented digitally can be transmitted without degradation due to noise. For example, a continuous audio signal, transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can be reconstructed without error provided the noise picked up in transmission is not enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s. An hour of music can be stored on a compact disc as about 6 billion binary digits. In a digital system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by using more binary digits to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to process the signals, each digit is handled by the same kind of hardware. In an analog system, additional resolution requires fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise charactersitics of each step of the signal chain. Computer-controlled digital systems can be controlled by software, allowing new functions to be added without changing hardware. Often this can be done outside of the factory by updating the products software. So, the products design errors can be corrected after the product is in a customers hands. Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise-immunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Disadvantages: In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat. In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered cellular telephones often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune in the radio signals from the base station. However, a base station has grid power and can use power-hungry, but very flexible software radios. Such base stations can be easily reprogrammed to process the signals used in new cellular standards. Digital circuits are sometimes more expensive, especially in small quantities. The sensed world is analog, and signals from this world are analog quantities. For example, light, temperature, sound, electrical conductivity, electric and magnetic fields are analog. Most useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog signals to discrete digital signals. This causes quantization errors. Quantization error can be reduced if the system stores enough digital data to represent the signal to the desired degree of fidelity. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem provides an important guideline as to how much digital data is needed to accurately portray a given analog signal. In some systems, if a single piece of digital data is lost or misinterpreted, the meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change. Because of the cliff effect, it can be difficult for users to tell if a particular system is right on the edge of failure, or if it can tolerate much more noise before failing. Digital fragility can be reduced by designing a digital system for robustness. For example, a parity bit or other error management method can be inserted into the signal path. These schemes help the system detect errors, and then either correct the errors, or at least ask for a new copy of the data. In a state-machine, the state transition logic can be designed to catch unused states and trigger a reset sequence or other error recovery routine. Embedded software designs that employ Immunity Aware Programming, such as the practice of filling unused program memory with interrupt instructions that point to an error recovery routine. This helps guard against failures that corrupt the microcontrollers instruction pointer which could otherwise cause random code to be executed. Digital memory and transmission systems can use techniques such as error detection and correction to use additional data to correct any errors in transmission and storage. On the other hand, some techniques used in digital systems make those systems more vulnerable to single-bit errors. These techniques are acceptable when the underlying bits are reliable enough that such errors are highly unlikely. TTL Logic Circuit: Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is a class of digital circuits built from bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and resistors. It is called transistor-transistor logic because both the logic gating function (e.g., AND) and the amplifying function are performed by transistors (contrast this with RTL and DTL). TTL is notable for being a widespread integrated circuit (IC) family used in many applications such as computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation, consumer electronics, synthesizers, etc. The designation TTL is sometimes used to mean TTL-compatible logic levels, even when not associated directly with TTL integrated circuits, for example as a label on the inputs and outputs of electronic instruments. *TTL contrasts with the preceding resistor-transistor logic (RTL) and diode-transistor logic (DTL) generations by using transistors not only to amplify the output but also to isolate the inputs. The p-n junction of a diode has considerable capacitance, so changing the logic level of an input connected to a diode, as in DTL, requires considerable time and energy. As shown in the top schematic at right, the fundamental concept of TTL is to isolate the inputs by using a common-base connection, and amplify the function using a common emitter connection. Note that the base of the output transistor is driven high only by the forward-biased base-collector junction of the input transistor. The second schematic adds to this a totem-pole output. When V2 is off (output equals 1), the resistors turn V3 on and V4 off, resulting in a stronger 1 output. When V2 is on, it activates V4, driving 0 to the output. The diode forces the emitter of V3 to ~0.7 V, while V4 base-emitter junction and V2 collector-emitter junction pull its base to a voltage ~0.7, turning it off. By removing pull-up and pull-down resistors from the output stage, this allows the strength of the gate to be increased without proportionally affecting power consumption. TTL is particularly well suited to integrated circuits because the inputs of a gate may all be integrated into a single base region to form a multiple-emitter transistor. Such a highly customized part might increase the cost of a circuit where each transistor is in a separate package, but, by combining several small on-chip components into one larger device, it conversely reduces the cost of implementation on an IC. As with all bipolar logic, a small current must be drawn from a TTL input to ensure proper logic levels. The total current drawn must be within the capacities of the preceding stage, which limits the number of nodes that can be connected (the fanout). All standardized common TTL circuits operate with a 5-volt power supply. A TTL input signal is defined as low when between 0V and 0.8V with respect to the ground terminal, and high when between 2.2V and 5V (precise logic levels vary slightly between sub-types). TTL outputs are typically restricted to narrower limits of between 0V and 0.4V for a low and between 2.6V and 5V for a high, providing 0.4V of noise immunity. Standardization of the TTL levels was so ubiquitous that complex circuit boards often contained TTL chips made by many different manufacturers selected for availability and cost, compatibility being assured; two circuit board units off the same assembly line on different successive days or weeks might have a different mix of brands of chips in the same positions on the board; repair was possible with chips manufactured years (sometimes over a decade) later than original components. Within usefully broad limits, logic gates could be treated as ideal Boolean devices withou t concern for electrical limitations. Advantages of TTL Logic circuit: Advantages of TTL logic family, one should have a basic idea about RTL, DTL etc. Diode logic (DL) uses diodes to implement logical functions like AND and OR. But the disadvantage is that it can not perform NOT operation. As AND and OR are not complete functions by themselves, they can not perform several logic functions without NOT. Hence, there was a need for some device which can perform a NOT function as diodes can not. That device is a transistor. Then came the DTL which uses a transistor along with diodes. As a transistor can act as an inverter, NAND (NOT-AND) NOR (NOT-OR) operations can be performed. But this logic uses several diodes which will slow down its operation. Due to the delay offered by them, the logic levels may sometimes change i. e. 0 t0 1 or 1 to 0. Then came TTL. This logic uses a multi emitter transistor, a transistor with many emitter terminals. As every emitter is nothing but a diode, this logic eliminates the use of all diodes. This is the major advantage. As transistor becomes ON and OFF much rapidly than a diode, switching time will be faster. TTL, or Transistor-transistor logic replaced resistor-transistor logic, and used much less power. The TTL family is very fast and reliable, and newer faster, less power-consuming, etc. types are always being developed. In TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic), think that the device using this technology is made from several transistors. Another advantage is that many more chips employ this REFRENCES: www.wikipidia.com www.google.com www.sparnotes.com

Sharon Wood and Marilyn Bell Di Lascio

In the passages â€Å"The true story of Lake Ontario† and â€Å"Sharon Wood: No Limits†, two amazing women gets introduced accomplishing their life-risking goals; both women had astonishing performances, but Sharon Woods defiantly stood out more than Marilyn Bell Di Lascio which came to a conclusion that Sharon Woods would be a better Role Model. Sharon Wood, the mind blowing mountain climber believed that â€Å"fear is healthy† (Georgi&Wojna p. 2).This fascinating statement declared from Sharon Wood was something no one would expect. Usually, people would think fear is unhealthy to the human body because it makes the human body nervous and uncomfortable. But Sharon Wood was different from the rest and believed in something unusual. Not only did Wood have a different state of mind, but she also had patience. Wood tried her best to wait for her helpless partner stuck on the mountain. She made a smart move by â€Å"wait[ing] 30 minutes† (Georgi&Wojna p. 1) f or him. If she climbed back for her partner in the mountain, she could’ve gotten hurt, stuck or ran out of oxygen. Even though she did abandon her partner for the rest of the trip down, she did it for an important, significant reason. Moreover, after she came back from her long trip from Everest, unlike Marilyn she found a â€Å"small, independent, non-denominational school in Canmore† (Georgi&Wojna p. 18). Marilyn Bell Di Lascio, was a brave swimmer that was first to swim across Lake Ontario.Marilyn was a strong hearted woman that had a passion for swimming. She â€Å"put her into [swimming]† (Di Lascio p. 3) Di Lascio was a magnificent woman, but she had some little troubles that interrupted her becoming the better role model. Di Lascio first said that she was determined to do something but, she lost all her â€Å"confidence about competing the swim, and the idea terrified [her]† (Di Lascio p. 9). This fear overcame her and made her terrified which was mostly the reason why she got budged off the better role model position.Furthermore, she had to get her friend wake her up in the middle of her swim which showed that she couldn’t concentrate hard enough. In the end when she came back from her swim, all she did was accept different prizes and awards and did nothing else-unlike Sharon Wood. Though Marilyn Bell Di Lascio and Sharon Wood both finished their life-risking goals, Sharon Wood would be the stronger, better role model because she was intelligent, different from others and also thought about her children and contributed to the society.

Alvin Ailey History Leading Up to ‘Cry’

Alvin Ailey – ‘Cry’ Give a chronological account of Ailey’s background, training and influences up to the time he made ‘Cry’. Discuss how this may have informed the narrative of the dance in the work ‘Cry’ Alvin Ailey used his culture and countless childhood memories to base his choreography. His background, training and influences have informed and influenced the narrative of his work ‘Cry. The concept of cry was devised by Alvin Ailey. ‘Cry’ took its inspiration and stimulus from the suffering and hardship faced by African American Women.It portrays a woman dealing with slavery, adversity and segregation, who overcomes extraordinary situations and misfortunes, and rises up to triumph. Alvin Ailey Jr. was born on the 5th of January, 1931 to Lula Elizabeth Ailey, in Rogers, Texas. His experiences of life being brought up in the rural South would later inspire some of his most notable works. Ailey was an only chil d, and his father left the family when Ailey was the mere age of 1. Ailey soon later moved to Navasota, Texas with his mother. â€Å"There was the white school up on the hill, and the Black Baptist Church† said Ailey in a Times interview.Ailey grew up in this world feeling like an outsider. In 1942 he moved to Los Angeles, where he was introduced to dance by performances by the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo and the Katherine Dunham Dance Company. It was at this time that Ailey became interested in athletics and along with this joined his high schools gymnastic and football teams. He also began taking tap lessons as he had a strong admiration for Gene Kelly and Fred Astaire. Ailey’s passion for dance further grew when he visited a modern dance school which was run by Lester Horton at the time.This dance school was the first company to accept dancers of all races. He attended Lester Horton’s dance school for one year before leaving. As Ailey had just recently gradua ted from high school in 1948 he went onto to attend the University of California where he studied languages. However, in 1949, Horton offered Ailey a scholarship, which he accepted, and it became effective immediately. Ailey continued on at the Company for again, one year, before this time leaving to attend San Francisco State College. With Ailey travelling a fair amount it gave him little connection and a lack of belonging which later in life would ontribute to the love and dedication he had towards his mother as she was the only real connection he had. Alongside this Ailey grew up with a strong sense of his African American Culture. While Ailey was living in San Francisco he began to dance in various night-clubs as a source of money. Very soon later, once again, Ailey returned to Los Angeles in order to complete his dance training with Lester Horton. It was in 1953 that Ailey ventured to New York alongside Horton and the company to perform. During this trip to New York Lester Hort on had a sudden death, leaving Ailey as Director of the Company.From here Ailey followed Horton’s technique and style himself as it thoroughly influenced on his dance genre, and he, himself produced 2 works. Unfortunately, for Ailey these pieces received very little praise and poor reviews which resulted in the troupe parting ways. Regardless of this minor setback, Ailey’s career truly began to blossom and he successfully moved on in the dance industry. Ailey was cast for numerous productions both on and off Broadway! Among these were the likes off: Sing, Man, Sing; Jamaica; Carefree tree; and Call me by my right name.In 1958 Ailey and another choreographer set out to recruit dancers which would perform several concerts throughout New York City. These new and modern works received successful reviews and high amounts of praise, which led Ailey to schedule concert after concert for the works to be viewed. Ailey’s first major work â€Å"Blues Suite† inspired by blues music was performed at these recitals. It was during this time, that his now most grasping piece â€Å"Revelations† was created and brought to life on the stage. â€Å"Revelations† was accompanied by the clutching music of Duke Ellington.It was this work that introduced the African American Religious Life to the United States, and pulled the audience in leaving them wanting more. It was from here on out that Alvin Ailey realized the impact he had on audiences through the African American context, and he further used this to his advantages to express the hardships that people of this culture faced through dance and art. In 1958 Alvin Ailey established his own company, the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre, to carry out his vision of a company devoted to inspiring the American modern dance heritage and preserving the style and traditions of the African-American culture.A short one year after its creation the company became the resident dance theatre at the Cla rke Centre for Performing Arts in New York City. The Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre was lucky enough to house the leading African American Soloist being Judith Jamison. Not only was Judith Jamison a part of the company, Ailey also employed Asian and white dancers, making his company tremendously culturally diverse. It during the mid-1960’s when Ailey officially gave up dance, due to personal issues.Although quite recently after this, Ailey alongside his company relocated to Brooklyn, New York. From here on the Alvin Ailey Dance Theatre went on to be one of the most renowned dance troupes, touring internationally. It was on May 4th, 1971 at the New York City Centre, where Ailey’s signature work ‘Cry’ was first performed. Ailey dedicated this piece to â€Å"all black women everywhere–especially our mothers. † Alvin Ailey choreographed his memorable solo  Ã¢â‚¬ËœCry’  as a birthday present for his honorable mother, and choreograph ed the dance on his principal dancer, Judith Jamison.Jamison demonstrated Ailey’s mother’s struggles as well as all other African American woman’s struggles at the time of slavery as they fought for freedom. Mrs. Cooper (Alvin Ailey's mother) and Ms. Jamison are considered as the model of an Ailey woman. The role in ‘Cry’ has been passed on to all the Principal Dancers in the company being taught from the original soloist, Judith Jamison. In her autobiography, Jamison wrote â€Å"Exactly where the woman is going through the ballet's three sections was never explained to me by Alvin.In my interpretation, she represented those women before her who came from the hardships of slavery, through the pain of losing loved ones, through overcoming extraordinary depressions and tribulations. Coming out of a world of pain and trouble, she has found her way-and triumphed. † The piece ‘Cry’ very much so illustrates these altered generations of African American women. The work begins with the unraveling of a long white cloth that is personified during the work and takes on many figures; from a cleaning cloth which depicts the slavery the women faced to a physical barrier on the floor preventing escape.Ailey said â€Å"I am trying to express something that I feel about people, life, the human spirit, the beauty of things. † This three female solo, takes the audience on a journey of bitter sadness, ruthless hardship and blissful joy. It is through these factors that we are able to see the narrative of the work cry Ultimately, Ailey strongly used themes and concepts that he experienced from his past training, influences and background knowledge, to create and choreograph his most renowned work ‘Cry’

Indian Social Structure and Values Ethics in Business

INDIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND VALUES ETHICS IN BUSINESS : NATURE AND TYPES OF INDIAN SOCIETY : 1) Tribal Society : The tribals are economically, educationally and politically backward as compared to the non-tribals. One scholar has called tribal people â€Å"Backward Hindus†. However there is a sizable number of Tribals who are Christian. The tribes of India before independence were considered animistic by the by religion Census authorities. Distinction was made between those who were Hindu and those who followed their own religion. There is no uniform pattern of religion among the tribal peoples of India. Mandelbaum mentions eight characteristics of Indian tribes: (i) kinship as an instrument of social bonds, (ii) lack of hierarchy†¦show more content†¦Urban industrial life brings about changes in norms and ideologies which may greatly change the social structure and the relationships between people. The reduced size of the modern family i.e nuclear family is a result of industrial society. 3. Impersonalness and lack of intimate communication : Owing to heterogeneous composition, urban people know each other only in superficial and impersonal ways. A large proportion of urban social relations takes place between nameless strangers and they last only for a limited period of time. One may know a person as a bank cashier, another as a co-worker, another as a grocer, but they are seldom known in an intimate way. Economic interests dominate this in personal urban world. The city becomes a complex mass of people living close together, but without emotional ties. The urban dweller often feels lonely and isolated even in the midst of vast crowds. The impersonality, formality of relations and the breakdown of intimate communication in an urban society gives rise to many urban industrial problems. In metropolitan areas, neighbors frequently live side by side in anonymity. 4. Materialism : In an industrial society external appearances and material possessions are of primary importance. City dwellers are known for their status symbols (such as salaries, car, video cassettes etc.) Urban people do not believe in plain living and high thinking. 5. Individualism : The city dwellers, in theirShow MoreRelatedEssay about Ethics in International Business1657 Words   |  7 Pages Ethics in International Business Abstract International business ethics challenges the corporate world to deal with questions of what to do in situations where ethical standards come into conflict as a result of the different cultural practices in the nation. Since, there is this dilemma that has progressively troubled the large multinational corporations, international business ethics has arisen to help address these adhesive subject matters. There are several international business ethicsRead MoreThe Caste System Of India Essay1500 Words   |  6 Pagesorganized the social structure in India. 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